Development of a vascular supply is a fundamental requirement for many physiological and pathological processes. Actively growing tissues such as embryos and tumors require adequate blood supply. They satisfy this need by producing pro-angiogenic factors, which promote new blood vessel formation via a process called angiogenesis. Vascular tube formation is a complex but orderly biological event involving all or many of the following steps: a) endothelial cells (ECs) proliferate from existing ECs or differentiate from progenitor cells; b) ECs migrate and coalesce to form cord-like structures; c) vascular cords then undergo tubulogenesis to form vessels with a central lumen; d) existing cords or vessels send out sprouts to form secondary vessels; e) primitive vascular plexus undergo further remodeling and reshaping; and f) peri-endothelial cells are recruited to encase the endothelial tubes, providing maintenance and modulatory functions to the vessels; such cells including pericytes for small capillaries, smooth muscle cells for larger vessels, and myocardial cells in the heart. Hanahan, Science 277:48-50 (1997); Hogan & Kolodziej, Nat. Rev. Genet. 3:513-23 (2002); Lubarsky & Krasnow, Cell 112:19-28 (2003).
It is now well established that angiogenesis is implicated in the pathogenesis of a variety of disorders. These include solid tumors and metastasis, atherosclerosis, retrolental fibroplasia, hemangiomas, chronic inflammation, intraocular neovascular diseases such as proliferative retinopathies, e.g., diabetic retinopathy, age-related macular degeneration (AMD), neovascular glaucoma, immune rejection of transplanted corneal tissue and other tissues, rheumatoid arthritis, and psoriasis. Folkman et al., J. Biol. Chem. 267:10931-34 (1992); Klagsbrun et al., Annu. Rev. Physiol. 53:217-39 (1991); and Garner A., “Vascular diseases,” In: Pathobiology of Ocular Disease. A Dynamic Approach, Garner A., Klintworth G K, eds., 2nd Edition (Marcel Dekker, NY, 1994), pp 1625-1710.
In the case of tumor growth, angiogenesis appears to be crucial for the transition from hyperplasia to neoplasia, and for providing nourishment for the growth and metastasis of the tumor. Folkman et al., Nature 339:58 (1989). The neovascularization allows the tumor cells to acquire a growth advantage and proliferative autonomy compared to the normal cells. A tumor usually begins as a single aberrant cell which can proliferate only to a size of a few cubic millimeters due to the distance from available capillary beds, and it can stay ‘dormant’ without further growth and dissemination for a long period of time. Some tumor cells then switch to the angiogenic phenotype to activate endothelial cells, which proliferate and mature into new capillary blood vessels. These newly formed blood vessels not only allow for continued growth of the primary tumor, but also for the dissemination and recolonization of metastatic tumor cells. Accordingly, a correlation has been observed between density of microvessels in tumor sections and patient survival in breast cancer as well as in several other tumors. Weidner et al., N. Engl. J. Med. 324:1-6 (1991); Horak et al., Lancet 340: 1120-24 (1992); Macchiarini et al., Lancet 340:145-46 (1992). The precise mechanisms that control the angiogenic switch is not well understood, but it is believed that neovascularization of tumor mass results from the net balance of a multitude of angiogenesis stimulators and inhibitors (Folkman, Nat. Med. 1(1):27-31 (1995)).
The process of vascular development is tightly regulated. To date, a significant number of molecules, mostly secreted factors produced by surrounding cells, have been shown to regulate EC differentiation, proliferation, migration and coalescence into cord-like structures. For example, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) has been identified as the key factor involved in stimulating angiogenesis and in inducing vascular permeability. Ferrara et al., Endocr. Rev. 18:4-25 (1997). The finding that the loss of even a single VEGF allele results in embryonic lethality points to an irreplaceable role played by this factor in the development and differentiation of the vascular system. Furthermore, VEGF has been shown to be a key mediator of neovascularization associated with tumors and intraocular disorders. Ferrara et al., Endocr. Rev. supra. The VEGF mRNA is overexpressed by the majority of human tumors examined. Berkman et al., J. Clin. Invest. 91:153-59 (1993); Brown et al., Human Pathol. 26:86-91 (1995); Brown et al., Cancer Res. 53:4727-35 (1993); Mattem et al., Brit. J. Cancer 73:931-34 (1996); Dvorak et al., Am. J. Pathol. 146:1029-39 (1995).
Also, the concentration levels of VEGF in eye fluids are highly correlated to the presence of active proliferation of blood vessels in patients with diabetic and other ischemia-related retinopathies. Aiello et al., N. Engl. J. Med. 331:1480-87 (1994). Furthermore, studies have demonstrated the localization of VEGF in choroidal neovascular membranes in patients affected by AMD. Lopez et al., Invest. Opthalmol. Vis. Sci. 37:855-68 (1996).
Anti-VEGF neutralizing antibodies suppress the growth of a variety of human tumor cell lines in nude mice (Kim et al., Nature 362:841-44 (1993); Warren et al., J. Clin. Invest. 95:1789-97 (1995); Borgström et al., Cancer Res. 56:4032-39 (1996); Melnyk et al., Cancer Res. 56:921-24 (1996)) and also inhibit intraocular angiogenesis in models of ischemic retinal disorders (Adamis et al., Arch. Opthalmol. 114:66-71 (1996)). Therefore, anti-VEGF monoclonal antibodies or other inhibitors of VEGF action are promising candidates for the treatment of tumors and various intraocular neovascular disorders. Such antibodies are described, for example, in EP 817,648, published Jan. 14, 1998; and in WO 98/45331 and WO 98/45332, both published Oct. 15, 1998. One anti-VEGF antibody, bevacizumab, has been approved by the FDA for use in combination with a chemotherapy regimen to treat metastatic colorectal cancer (CRC). And bevacizumab is being investigated in many ongoing clinical trials for treating various cancer indications.
The EphrinB2 ligand (“Ephrin-B2” or “EphrinB2”) is a member of the ephrin ligand family, which constitutes a large family of tyrosine kinase receptors in the human genome (reviewed in Dodelet, Oncogene, 19: 5614-5619, 2000). The human ephrin ligand tyrosine kinases are categorized by sequence identity into an A class and a B class with corresponding A-type and B-type receptors referred to as Ephs or Eph receptors. Signaling can occur in a forward manner, in which the receptor tyrosine kinase is activated by the ligand, and in a reverse manner, in which the transmembrane ephrinB ligands are activated by interaction with receptors. Eph receptor-ligand interactions have been implicated in a wide range of biological functions including axon guidance, tissue border formation, vasculogenesis, and cell motility (Kullander et al. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell. Biol., 3: 475-486, 2002; Cheng et al. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev., 13: 75-85, 2002; Coulthard et al. Int. J. Dev. Biol., 46: 375-384, 2002).
It is clear that there continues to be a need for agents that have clinical attributes that are optimal for development as therapeutic agents. The invention described herein meets this need and provides other benefits.
All references cited herein, including patent applications and publications, are incorporated by reference in their entirety.